Identifying Human Trafficking Victims - World Leaders and Health Institutions

Volume 6, Issue 5, October 2021     |     PP. 329-364      |     PDF (368 K)    |     Pub. Date: August 29, 2021
DOI: 10.54647/cm32588    82 Downloads     4773 Views  

Author(s)

Dr. Jennifer Leslie, JD, DHSc., Nova Southeastern University Doctoral Grad, 2020

Abstract
Human trafficking involves harsh exploitation of victims and is a deplorable human rights violation. It can be a danger to one’s health and is a major public health issue. Roughly, 12.3 to 27 million men, women, and children are trafficked worldwide. Close to 17,500 people are trafficked yearly into the United States. Human trafficking victims often suffer from many health problems while being trafficked. Trafficking victims often seek medical care while in captivity, placing health care professionals in a unique position to interrupt the abuse cycle and prevent further exploitation and the risk of death. However, caregivers often do not detect trafficking victims’ delicate health needs. Despite training, care providers still lack the extent of knowledge that is needed to assess and rescue victims of trafficking. Furthermore, the World Health Organization (WHO) international classification of diseases (ICD) 11th version system excludes the diagnostic codes for sex trafficking and labor trafficking, hindering the requisite global public health efforts to research, monitor, and diagnose labor and sex trafficking. One of the barriers to human trafficking identification involves challenges in breach of confidentiality with ICD coding and electronic health record. Documentation or reporting via ICD coding may also violate HIPAA. Although reporting laws are designed to protect certain victims, the laws can potentially create further harm to them. The purpose of this paper is to review the human trafficking victim identification process for healthcare institutions and the global International Classification of Diseases (ICD) system for human trafficking.

Keywords
human trafficking, trafficking, health care, emergency department, trafficking victims, identification tools, sex trafficking, labor trafficking, warnings signs, red flags, barriers to identification, health consequences of human trafficking, screening tools, screening protocols, sex trafficking health policies, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), World Health Organization (WHO) on human trafficking, United Nations (UN) on human trafficking, validated screening tools, Health Insura

Cite this paper
Dr. Jennifer Leslie, JD, DHSc., Identifying Human Trafficking Victims - World Leaders and Health Institutions , SCIREA Journal of Clinical Medicine. Volume 6, Issue 5, October 2021 | PP. 329-364. 10.54647/cm32588

References

[ 1 ] Armstrong, S., & Greenbaum, V. J (2019). Using survivors’ voices to guide the identification and care of trafficked persons by U.S. health care professionals: A systematic review. Advanced Emergency Nursing Journal, 41(3), 244–260. doi:10.1097/TME.0000000000000257
[ 2 ] Basu, P., Doshi, V., Malinow, A., Huang, J., Kivlahan, C., & Mann, L (2021). Recognizing and intervening in child sex trafficking. The Journal of Family Practice, 70(1), 29–34. doi:10.12788/jfp.0144
[ 3 ] Bauer, R., Brown, S., Cannon, E., & Southard, E (2019). What Health Providers Should Know About Human Sex Trafficking. MEDSURG Nursing, 28(6), 347–351.
[ 4 ] Beck, M. E., Lineer, M. M., Melzer-Lange, M., Simpson, P., Nugent, M., & Rabbitt, A (2015). Medical providers’ understanding of sex trafficking and their experience with at-risk patients. Pediatrics, 135(4), e895-e902. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-2814
[ 5 ] Bespalova, N., Morgan, J., & Coverdale, J (2016). A pathway to freedom: An evaluation of screening tools for the identification of trafficking victims. Academic Psychiatry, 40(1), 124–128. doi:10.1007/s40596-014-0245-1
[ 6 ] Boswell, K., Temples, H. S., & Wright, M. E (2019). LGBT Youth, Sex Trafficking, and the Nurse Practitioner’s Role. Journal of Pediatric Healthcare, 33(5), 555–560. doi:10.1016/j.pedhc.2019.02.005
[ 7 ] Byrne, M (2019). Human trafficking: Impact, identification, and intervention. Nursing Management, 50(8), 18–24. doi:10.1097/01.NUMA.0000575304.15432.07
[ 8 ] Byrne, M., Parsh, B., & Ghilain, C (2017). Victims of human trafficking: Hiding in plain sight.
[ 9 ] Nursing, 47(3), 48–52. doi: 10.1097/01.NURSE.0000512876.06634.c4
[ 10 ] Cheshire, W. P (2017). Groupthink: How should clinicians respond to human trafficking? AMA Journal of Ethics, 19(1), 91-97. doi:10.1001/journalofethics.2017.19.1.msoc3-1701
[ 11 ] Chisolm, S. M., & Dr Kline (2018). Measured Steps: Evidence‐based Anti‐Trafficking Efforts in the Emergency Department. Academic Emergency Medicine, 25(11), 1302–1305. doi:10.1111/acem.13552
[ 12 ] Chisolm-Straker, M., Sze, J., Einbond, J., White, J., & Stoklosa, H (2019). Screening for human trafficking among homeless young adults. Children & Youth Services Review, 98, 72–79. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.12.014
[ 13 ] Cokar, M., Ulman, Y. I., & Bakirci, N (2016). Breaking the silence of the lambs: Integrating medical staff in prevention of human trafficking. Acta Bioéthica, 22(1), 101–110. doi:10.4067/S1726-569X2016000100011
[ 14 ] Coughlin, C. G., Greenbaum, J., & Titchen, K (2020). Educating paediatric health-care providers about human trafficking. Journal of Paediatrics & Child Health, 56(9), 1335–1339. doi:10.1111/jpc.15116
[ 15 ] Doctor, H., Rashidian, A., Hajjeh, R., & Al-Mandhari, A (2021). Improving health and mortality data in Eastern Mediterranean Region countries: implementation of the International Classification of Diseases, 11th Revision (ICD-11). Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, 27(2), 111–112. doi:10.26719/2021.27.2.111
[ 16 ] Dols, J. D., Beckmann-Mendez, D., McDow, J., Walker, K., & Moon, M. D (2019). Human Trafficking Victim Identification, Assessment, and Intervention Strategies in South Texas Emergency Departments. Journal of Emergency Nursing, 45(6), 622–633. doi:10.1016/j.jen.2019.07.002
[ 17 ] Edwards, L., & Mika, K. M (2017). Advancing the efforts of the macro-level social work
[ 18 ] response against sex trafficking. International Social Work, 60(3), 695-706.
[ 19 ] English, A (2017). Mandatory Reporting of Human Trafficking: Potential Benefits and Risks of Harm. AMA Journal of Ethics. 19(1), 54-62. doi:10.1001/journalofethics.2017.19.1.pfor1-1701.
[ 20 ] Gibbons, P., & Stoklosa, H (2016). Identification and treatment of human trafficking victims in the emergency department: A case report. The Journal of Emergency Medicine, 50(5), 715-719. doi:10.1016/j.jemermed.2016.01.004
[ 21 ] Greenbaum, J., & Stoklosa, H (2019). The healthcare response to human trafficking: A need for globally harmonized ICD codes. PLoS Medicine, 16(5), 1–3. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002799
[ 22 ] Greenbaum, J., Garrett, A., Chon, K., Bishop, M., Luke, J., & Stoklosa, H (2021). Principles for Safe Implementation of ICD Codes for Human Trafficking. Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 49(2), 285-289. doi:10.1017/jme.2021.40
[ 23 ] Hachey, L. M., & Phillippi, J. C (2017). Identification and management of human trafficking victims in the emergency department. Advanced Emergency Nursing Journal, 39(1), 31-51. doi: 10.1097/TME.0000000000000138
[ 24 ] Hoyle, P (2017). Integrated categories for integrated care - the importance of patient centred categories. International Journal of Integrated Care (IJIC), 17(3), 22–23. doi:10.5334/ijic.3128
[ 25 ] Kaltiso, S. O., Greenbaum, V. J., Agarwal, M., McCracken, C., Zmitrovich, A., Harper, E., & Simon, H. K (2018). Evaluation of a screening tool for child sex trafficking among patients with high‐risk chief complaints in a pediatric emergency department. Academic Emergency Medicine, 25(11), 1193–1203. doi:10.1111/acem.13497
[ 26 ] Krawczyk, P., & Święcicki, Ł (2020). ICD-11 vs. ICD-10 - a review of updates and novelties introduced in the latest version of the WHO International Classification of Diseases. Psychiatria Polska, 54(1), 7–20. doi:10.12740/PP/103876
[ 27 ] Landers, M., McGrath, K., Johnson, M. H., Armstrong, M. I., & Dollard, N (2017). Baseline characteristics of dependent youth who have been commercially sexually exploited: Findings from a specialized treatment program. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 26(6), 692–709. doi:10.1080/10538712.2017.1323814
[ 28 ] Lemke, M (2019). Educators as the “frontline” of human-trafficking prevention: An analysis of state-level educational policy. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 18(3), 284–304. doi:10.1080/15700763.2017.1398337
[ 29 ] Leslie J (2018). Human Trafficking: Clinical Assessment Guideline. Journal of Trauma Nursing, 25(5), 282-289. doi:10.1097/JTN.0000000000000389
[ 30 ] Loua, A., Feroleto, M., Sougou, A., Julius Kasilo, O. M., Nikiema, J. B., Fuller, W., Kniazkov, S., & Tumusiime, P (2020). A review of policies and programmes for human organ and tissue donations and transplantations, WHO African Region. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 98(6), 420–425. doi:10.2471/BLT.19.236992
[ 31 ] Macias-Konstantopoulos, W. L (2018). Diagnosis codes for human trafficking can help assess incidence, risk factors, and comorbid illness and injury. AMA Journal of Ethics, 20(12), 1143-1151. doi:10.1001/amajethics.2018.1143.
[ 32 ] McDow, J., & Dols, J. D (2021). Implementation of a Human Trafficking Screening Protocol. Journal for Nurse Practitioners, 17(3), 339–343. doi:10.1016/j.nurpra.2020.10.031
[ 33 ] Moore, J (2018). I’m not for sale: Teaching about human trafficking. Social Studies, 109(2), 74–84. doi:10.1080/00377996.2018.1451982
[ 34 ] National Human Trafficking Resource Center [NHTRC] (n.d.). Identifying Victims of Human Trafficking: What to Look for in a Healthcare Setting. Retrieved from https://traffickingresourcecenter.org/sites/default/files/What%20to%20Look%20for%20during%20a%20Medical%20Exam%20-%20FINAL%20-%202-16-16.docx.pdf
[ 35 ] Nguyen, D., Luo, W., Venkatesh, S., & Phung, D (2018). Effective Identification of Similar Patients Through Sequential Matching over ICD Code Embedding. Journal of Medical Systems, 42(5), 1. doi:10.1007/s10916-018-0951-4
[ 36 ] Nguyen, P. T., Coverdale, J. H., & Gordon, M. R (2017). Identifying, treating, and advocating for human trafficking victims: A key role for psychiatric inpatient units. General Hospital Psychiatry, 46, 41-43.
[ 37 ] Nguyen, P. T., Lamkin, J., Coverdale, J. H., Scott, S., Li, K., & Gordon, M. R (2018). Identifying human trafficking victims on a psychiatry inpatient service: A case series. Psychiatric Quarterly, 89(2), 341-348. doi:10.1007/s11126-017-9538-3
[ 38 ] Otero Varela, L., Doktorchik, C., Wiebe, N., Quan, H., & Eastwood, C (2021). Exploring the differences in ICD and hospital morbidity data collection features across countries: an international survey. BMC Health Services Research, 21(1), 1–9. doi:10.1186/s12913-021-06302-w
[ 39 ] Powell, C., Asbill, M., Brew, S., & Stoklosa, H (2018). Human Trafficking and HIPAA: What the Health Care Professional Needs to Know. Journal of Human Trafficking, 4(2), 105–113. doi:10.1080/23322705.2017.1285613
[ 40 ] Powell, C., Dickins, K., & Stoklosa, H (2017). Training us health care professionals on human trafficking: Where do we go from here? Medical Education Online, 22(1), 1-5. doi:10.1080/10872981.2017.1267980
[ 41 ] Preble, K. M., Cook, M. A., & Fults, B (2019). Sex trafficking and the role of institutions of higher education: Recommendations for response and preparedness. Innovative Higher Education, 44(1), 5–19. doi:10.1007/s10755-018-9443-1
[ 42 ] Rollins, R., Gribble, A., Barrett, S. E., & Powell, C (2017). Who is in your waiting room? Health care professionals as culturally responsive and trauma-informed first responders to human trafficking. AMA Journal of Ethics, 19(1), 63-71. doi:10.1001/journalofethics.2017.19.1.pfor2-1701
[ 43 ] Shandro, J., Chisolm-Straker, M., Duber, H., Findlay, S. L., Munoz, J., Schmitz, G., . . . Wingkun, N (2016). Injury prevention/review article: Human trafficking: A guide to identification and approach for the emergency physician. Annals of Emergency Medicine. 68(4), 501-508. doi: 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2016.03.049
[ 44 ] Stanford, K., Cappetta, A., Ahn, R., & Macias-Konstantopoulos, W (2021). Sex and Labor Trafficking in Paraguay: Risk Factors, Needs Assessment, and the Role of the Health Care System. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(9/10), 4806–4831. doi:10.1177/0886260518788364
[ 45 ] Stevens, M., & Berishaj, K (2016). The anatomy of human trafficking: Learning about the blues: A healthcare provider’s guide. Journal of Forensic Nursing, 12(2), 49-56.
[ 46 ] Stoklosa, Dawson, Williams-Oni, & Rothman (2017). A review of U.S. healthcare institution protocols for the identification and treatment of victims of human trafficking. Journal of Human Trafficking, 3(2), 116-124.
[ 47 ] Stoklosa, H., Showalter, E., Melnick, A., & Rothman, E. F (2017). Healthcare providers’ experience with a protocol for the identification, treatment, and referral of human-trafficking victims. Journal of Human Trafficking, 3(3), 182-192.
[ 48 ] Testa, D (2020). Hospital Health Provider Experiences of Identifying and Treating Trafficked Persons. Australian Social Work, 73(1), 92–104. doi:10.1080/0312407X.2018.1529812
[ 49 ] Tiller, J., & Reynolds, S (2020). Human Trafficking in the Emergency Department: Improving Our Response to a Vulnerable Population. Western Journal of Emergency Medicine: Integrating Emergency Care with Population Health, 21(3), 549–554. doi:10.5811/westjem.2020.1.41690
[ 50 ] Tripp, T. M., & McMahon-Howard, J (2016). Perception vs. reality: The relationship between organized crime and human trafficking in Metropolitan Atlanta. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 41(4), 732-764.
[ 51 ] Yousaf, F. N (2018). Forced migration, human trafficking, and human security. Current Sociology, 66(2), 209–225. doi:10.1177/0011392117736309
[ 52 ] Zhou, L., Cheng, C., Ou, D., & Huang, H (2020). Construction of a semi-automatic ICD-10 coding system. BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making, 20(1), 67. doi:10.1186/s12911-020-1085-4
[ 53 ] Zimmerman, C., & Kiss, L (2017). Human trafficking and exploitation: A global health concern. PLoS Medicine, 14(11), 1–11. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002437